- English is dominating instruction in early grade classrooms studied in Kiambu despite Kenya’s policy on local languages.
- Researchers found none of the 24 observed lessons used mother tongue as the primary instructional language.
- The study identifies shortages of local-language materials, large classes and limited teacher confidence among key barriers.
A new study has found that English largely dominates mother-tongue instruction in early grade classrooms studied in Kiambu County, with teachers citing a lack of local-language learning materials, limited instructional time and large class sizes as major barriers to implementing the country’s language policy.
The findings are contained in a study titled “Bridging the Policy-Practice Gap: An Investigation of Language Practices, Teacher Adoption of Pedagogy, and Their Combined Impact on Early Grade Literacy in Kenya.”
The findings were presented during a stakeholders’ findings validation and policy briefing meeting held at the United States International University-Africa (USIU-Africa).
The study, led by Prof. Peter Kigwilu of USIU-Africa, examined why weaknesses in early-grade literacy persist despite near-universal school enrolment and policies promoting mother-tongue instruction and learner-centred teaching.
Researchers found a disconnect between policy and classroom practice. Classroom observations showed that English was the primary language of instruction in 87.5 per cent of lessons, while none of the 24 lessons observed used mother tongue as the primary teaching language.
The findings also revealed that many teachers do not clearly understand the government’s language of instruction policy, which provides for the use of the language of a school’s catchment area, including a mother tongue or local language, during the early years of education.
Only 14.3 per cent of teachers correctly identified mother tongue as the mandated language for Grade 3, while 67.3 per cent identified English instead.
Despite the dominance of English, teachers frequently switched between languages to support learners’ understanding. Code-switching and translanguaging were observed in 75 per cent of lessons, while more than 90 per cent of teachers said the practices were helpful in improving comprehension.
A major challenge identified by the study was the shortage of instructional materials in local languages.
About 86 per cent of teachers reported that local-language learning materials were unavailable in their schools. The study also found that approximately two learners shared one literacy textbook.
Teachers identified limited lesson time, large classes and inadequate teaching and learning materials as their leading barriers to effective literacy instruction.
The average class size was 43.5 learners, rising to 57.5 in urban schools compared with 41.7 in rural schools.
The researchers said these challenges point to a structural problem rather than simply a lack of teacher knowledge or commitment.
“Learners can read but do not understand what they are reading,” was a recurring theme in interviews conducted as part of the study.
The study also found deeply rooted beliefs among teachers about the importance of English.
Nearly all teachers surveyed — 98.1 per cent — believed that early exposure to English produces better long-term outcomes for learners. More than nine in 10 said they selected their instructional language because they believed learners understood it better.
However, the findings revealed a contradiction: while teachers strongly favoured English, 56.2 per cent separately identified Kiswahili, rather than English, as the language in which learners demonstrated the strongest comprehension.
Researchers also found that the preference for English was largely teacher-driven rather than the result of parental pressure. Only 24.9 per cent of teachers reported pressure from parents to use English.
Confidence in teaching methods also varied according to language. While between 94 and 98 per cent of teachers said they were confident using learner-centred approaches, only about 28 to 36 per cent felt confident applying those approaches in the local language.
Only 42.9 per cent meet or exceed expectations
The study assessed 778 Grade 3 learners alongside a survey of 370 Grade 3 teachers, observations of 24 lessons and 20 interviews with key education stakeholders.
Learners recorded a mean reading comprehension score of 9.96 out of 26, placing overall performance at the lower end of the “Approaching Expectation” category.
Only 42.9 per cent of learners met or exceeded expectations in reading comprehension, while 33.3 per cent scored below expectation.
The results also showed a marked urban-rural difference in oral reading fluency. Learners in rural schools averaged 47.1 words per minute, compared with 61.3 words per minute in urban schools.
Comprehension was lowest among learners in integrated inclusive classrooms, who recorded an average score of 5.93 out of 26, compared with 10.18 in regular classrooms and 11.04 in regular classrooms with special units.
The findings come against a wider backdrop of persistent weaknesses in early-grade literacy in Kenya. The study notes that only about 45 per cent of Grade 3 learners currently meet expected reading standards.
The researchers also identified weaknesses in continuing professional development for early grade teachers.
Dedicated Grade 3 literacy training under the Tusome programme largely dates from 2020–2022, while current in-service retooling has increasingly focused on Junior School teachers.
School supervisory visits were found to average three per term, against a recommended six.
Researchers propose policy changes
The research was conducted in Kiambu County, which was purposively selected because of its performance in the 2017 Early Grade Reading Assessment (EGRA) midline.
At the time, only 39.5 per cent of Grade 3 learners in Kiambu could perform Grade 2-level reading tasks, compared with 51.8 per cent in neighbouring Nyeri and 50.5 per cent in Nairobi.
The research team comprised Prof. Kigwilu as Principal Investigator, Dr Tobias Owiti and Ms Emmy Mugailwa of the Kenya National Examinations Council (KNEC), Prof. Betty Mbatia and Mr Clifford Olemo of USIU-Africa.
The researchers have recommended a series of measures to bridge the gap between Kenya’s language policy and classroom practice.
They want policymakers to issue a definitive and simplified mother-tongue policy that reaches teachers directly, ring-fence capitation funds for timely delivery of learning materials and align assessment languages with the stated policy.
Curriculum developers have been urged to introduce annual practical teacher retooling in phonics, multilingual teaching strategies and digital literacy, revive structured programmes such as Tusome and replace short cascade training with sustained instructional coaching.
The study also recommends moving towards a one-textbook-per-learner ratio.
At school level, headteachers should strengthen supervision of Grades 1–3, ensure continuity of teachers across the early grades and engage parents and communities through forums such as barazas to explain the value of mother-tongue instruction.
For learners with special needs, the researchers recommend clearer policies on language provision, increased investment in disability-specific resources such as Braille and sign-language materials, specialist capacity building and greater support for differentiated small-group teaching.
READ ALSO: The teacher who talks too much may be teaching too little: Why classroom communication matters
The study was funded through the Foundational Learning Research Grant awarded by Education Sub-Saharan Africa (ESSA) and the Research for Equitable Access and Learning (REAL) Centre at the University of Cambridge, with financial support from the Gates Foundation and the Global Partnership for Education Knowledge and Innovation Exchange (GPE KIX).
By Obegi Malack
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